How Cognitively Advanced Can a Small Passerine Bird Possibly Be? Suggestions From Studies of the Great Tit

Anders Brodin

Lund University

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Abstract

Among small birds the great tit Parus major stands out as especially good at performing various cognitive tasks that are impressive to humans. It may, for example, knock on kitchen windows to get bird feeder refills, drum on beehives in winter to lure the bees to come walking out, perch in flowering fruit trees and kill incoming bumblebee queens and large butterflies, give false alarm calls in order to monopolize bird feeders, and so on. Its ability for observational learning is especially impressive. Almost all impressive or unusual cognitive achievements have to do with food acquirement. Contrastingly, there are also some cognitive tasks that it seems unable to perform even though some other animals can do them (e.g., mirror self-recognition and tool use).

Keywords: great tit, Parus major, cognition

Author Note: Anders Brodin, Department of Biology, Lund University, Ekologihuset Kontaktvägen, 10 223 62 Lund, Sweden

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Anders Brodin at anders.brodin@biol.lu.se.

When Behaviors Are Contagious and Mimicry Matters: A 5-Step Framework for Predicting the Spontaneous Transmission of Automatic Behavior

Petra L. McDougall

University of Calgary

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Behavioral contagion and behavioral mimicry refer to the spontaneous nonconscious transmission of similar behaviors between individuals, a widespread phenomenon in group-living animals that is central to group cohesion. A variety of research fields investigate behavioral contagion and mimicry, and they do so from differing perspectives and social contexts. Collectively, these fields have identified numerous modulators of this phenomenon. Our ultimate understanding of how this process operates in a natural setting will require integrating all these modulating processes to produce a comprehensive framework that can be used across disciplines. In this article, I propose a 5-Step Framework that encompasses the prominent questions of the current fields of investigation. Five conditions must be met for behavioral transmission to occur: (a) Sensory information must be perceivable by the observer, (b) the observer must be attentive to the sensory information, (c) the observer must be capable of performing the behavior in an automatic manner, (d) the observer must be free from disaffiliation goals associated with the actor, and (e) the potential benefits must be greater than the potential costs of mimicking the behavior. Within the five sections, I review certain research topics relevant to each. I indicate how the framework may be used to evaluate the validity and assumptions associated with a study design. I also discuss the research in terms of potential mechanisms, including bottom-up (perception-action) processing and top-down (inhibitory) processing, thereby providing a broader perspective on how multiple neural mechanisms might work together to generate or prevent behavioral transmission.

Keywords: behavioral transmission, behavioral mimicry, behavioral contagion, framework, perception-action

Author Note  Petra L. McDougall, Department of Biological Sciences, 2500 University Drive NW, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Petra L. McDougall at petramcdougall@gmail.com

Are You Studying Occasion Setting? Be Cautious

James Byron Nelson

University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)

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This article is a commentary on “Are You Studying Occasion Setting? A Review for Inquiring Minds” by Leising, Nerz, Solorzano-Restrepo, and Bond. I support the authors’ argument that occasion setting may be represented in a variety of other phenomena and that making that determination is important. First, the argument connects the other phenomena to a large database of literature on occasion setting, which has promise in furthering our understanding. Second, I would add that research and theory related to the other phenomena are equally important in helping us understand occasion setting, for which no single theory is presently adequate. This commentary emphasizes a need for caution, citing difficulties in identifying occasion setting on the basis of procedure alone and a tendency to accept “occasion setting” as an explanation.

Keywords: occasion setting, renewal, matching to sample

Author Note  James Byron Nelson, Universidad del Pais Vasco (UPV/EHU), Procesos Basicos y Su Desarrollo, Avenida del Tolosa 70, 20018, Spain

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to James Byron Nelson at JamesByron.Nelson@ehu.eus

Yes, We Are Studying Occasion Setting: A Configural Complement to Leising et al.

Edgar Vogel

Research Center on Cognitive Sciences, University of Talca

Pablo D. Matamala

Research Center on Cognitive Sciences, University of Talca

Claudio C. Ramírez

Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Talca

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Abstract

The article “Are You Studying Occasion Setting? A Review for Inquiring Minds” offers a valuable and comprehensive look at how stimuli can influence or “set the occasion” for responding to another cue, organizing its discussion around four principal experimental tests. By distinguishing direct (excitatory or inhibitory) stimulus control from a more indirect, hierarchical form of stimulus modulation, Leising et al. (2025) make a strong case for why occasion setting warrants further study. Although they acknowledge both hierarchical‐modulatory and associative‐configural approaches, the article’s emphasis on hierarchical terminology may inadvertently suggest that purely associative (configural) theories have less explanatory power. This focus can overshadow the potential theoretical and empirical contributions of configural models. With this commentary, we emphasize the strengths of so‐called configural explanations and illustrate how they address the same core tasks, drawing on principles from Wagner’s SOP with Replaced Elements (SOP‐REM) model. Our hope is that this complementary view will further enrich the discussion on occasion setting and demonstrate the versatility of associative frameworks in explaining complex cue‐modulation phenomena.

Keywords: Occasion Setting, Conditioning, Configural, SOP, Replaced Elements Model

Author Note: Edgar H. Vogel, Faculty of Psychology, Applied Psychology Center, University of Talca, 2 Norte 685, Talca 3460000, Chile

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edgar H. Vogel at evogel@utalca.cl.

Occasion Setting, Disjunctive Problem Structures, and the Art of Rationalizing Mistakes

René Schlegelmilch

University of Bremen

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I endorse the efforts proposed by Leising et al. (2025) to bridge terminological and conceptual gaps within and across disciplines. Occasion setting may indeed represent one of the most universally studied problems in human and nonhuman learning, occurring whenever a learned contingency between two variables depends on the status of a third (explicit or latent) variable. I argue that identifying the (partial) “disjunctive structure” and stimulus representations fundamental to occasion setting allows for recognizing a broader range of relevant tasks and phenomena of theoretical interest in human category learning, operant conditioning, and related fields. This perspective has potential implications for theoretical concepts of error-driven reinforcement learning and may inform investigations into how humans reason about occasions when learned stimulus–outcome contingencies are reinforced or nonreinforced. Such insights could enhance our understanding of behavioral adaptation on a broader scale (e.g., the cognitive processes underlying lying, or rationalization of errors).

Keywords: contextual modulation, contingency reversal, rule abstraction, category learning, Gamblers’ fallacy

Author Note  René Schlegelmilch, University of Bremen, Hochschulring 18, 28359, Germany

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to René Schlegelmilch at r.schlegelmilch@uni-bremen.de

Stimuli, Responses and State Dependence: Occasion Setting as a General Mechanism of Associative Control

Charlotte Bonardi

University of Nottingham

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Associative learning is a powerful learning mechanism that encodes the predictive relationship between stimuli (and responses) and outcomes in the environment. But sometimes the same stimulus can predict different outcomes depending on the context in which it is encountered. For example, word meaning can be conceptualized as an association between an item and its verbal label. For a bilingual person a newspaper, for example, has different labels depending on the language that is being spoken—newspaper, periódico, shimbun, and so on. Occasion setting is the mechanism that allows us to select the object’s name in the language we are speaking—or more generally, the appropriate association for the current context. Leising et al. highlight many procedures in which occasion setting might play a role, and attempt to identify a set of diagnostic tests to identify it, in order to promote wider use of occasion setting. In this commentary I argue that using a less empirical, more theoretical analysis might make the concept of occasion setting accessible to an even wider audience.

Keywords: occasion setting, associative learning

Author Note: Charlotte Bonardi, Room B27 Psychology, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Charlotte Bonardi at charlotte.bonardi@nottingham.ac.uk.

Maybe We Are, But … : Occasion Setting in Intraverbal Behavior

Anna Ingeborg Petursdottir

University of Nevada, Reno

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Verbal behavior researchers study language and cognition from an operant learning perspective. In the process, they likely study the effects of stimuli that function as occasion setters. One possible example includes certain instances of intraverbal responses to multiple verbal stimuli. Control over intraverbal behavior in natural language may not lend itself well to tests that distinguish occasion setting from direct control, and this distinction may be unnecessary to accomplish some of the practical goals of applied research. However, experimental models of occasion setting in language could provide information of relevance to fine-tuning language interventions, in addition to having broader theoretical implications.

Keywords: language, intraverbal, occasion setting, verbal behavior

Author Note: Anna Ingeborg Petursdottir, Department of Psychology, 1664 N. Virginia St., Mail Stop 0296, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV 89557

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Anna Ingeborg Petursdottir at apetursdottir@unr.edu.

Setting the Occasion for Suboptimal Choice

Jessica Stagner Bodily

Auburn University at Montgomery

Kent D. Bodily

Huntingdon College and The Learning Tree, LLC

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Occasion setting occurs when a stimulus effectively modulates the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and reinforcement—specifically, when behavior is elicited in response to a conditioned stimulus when an occasion setter is present but not in its absence. In the target article “Are You Studying Occasion Setting? A Review for Inquiring Minds,” Leising et al. (2025) extensively review many testing procedures in which occasion setters are present to highlight the importance of their presence and impact on performance. In this commentary, we broaden this discussion by revisiting a suboptimal choice procedure and reframing it using the lens of occasion setting. We propose that there are stimuli within this choice task that serve as occasion setters for behavior. Using this interpretation of the suboptimal choice procedure illuminates a potential explanation for why a suboptimal preference has been observed by pigeons but not by human participants.

Keywords: choice, suboptimal choice, occasion setting

Author Note  Jessica Stagner Bodily, Department of Psychology, Auburn University at Montgomery, 7400 East Drive Montgomery, AL 36117

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jessica Stagner Bodily at jbodily@aum.edu

What Does Studying Occasion Setting Mean? Commentary on Leising et al. (2025) “Are You Studying Occasion Setting? A Review for Inquiring Minds”

Juan M. Rosas

University of Jaén

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The term occasion setter has been used in behavioral research to describe a procedure, a phenomenon, and an associative explanatory mechanism, referring to hierarchical stimulus representations where one stimulus modulates another’s relationship with an outcome. Leising et al. highlight the conditions and behavioral effects of occasion setting while applying four key tests to explore underlying associative mechanisms. However, researchers unfamiliar with associative learning may be inadvertently confused about the appropriate use of the term. Addressing this issue, this commentary underscores the need for clarity in defining what studying occasion setting means within specific research contexts. Explicitly distinguishing between its procedural, phenomenological, and mechanistic applications will help ensure consistent interpretation and communication across studies, fostering a more precise understanding of occasion setting in behavioral science.

Keywords: contextual control, stimulus control, occasion setting

Author Note: Juan M. Rosas, Department of Psychology, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Juan M. Rosas at jmrosas@ujaen.es.

Occasion Setting in Animal Cognition Research: Some Unaddressed Issues

Sadahiko Nakajima

Kwansei Gakuin University

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Holland and colleagues introduced the concept of occasion setting in the 1980s, revolutionizing Pavlovian conditioning research by highlighting the hierarchical properties of stimulus control. Occasion setting involves a stimulus that modulates the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Building on this, Leising et al. (2025) applies the concept to a broader range of behaviors and cognitive processes, from Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning to theory of mind and language. However, their article leaves several areas requiring further discussions: (a) the effects of temporal gaps between feature and target stimuli on discrimination performance, (b) contextual control in flavor aversion learning, (c) contextual control in spatial learning, (d) mathematical modeling of occasion setting, and (e) the limits of understanding hierarchical event structures in nonhuman animals. Addressing these issues will refine the theoretical and practical understanding of occasion setting across disciplines.

Keywords: conditional discrimination, associative learning, context, spatial learning, flavor aversion

Author Note  Sadahiko Nakajima, Department of Psychological Science, Kwansei Gakuin University, Nishinomiya, 662-8501, Japan

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sadahiko Nakajima at nakajima@kwansei.ac.jp or cs-us@nifty.com