Occasion Setting in Humans: Norm or Exception?

Jessica C. Lee

University of Sydney

University of New South Wales

Julie Y.-L. Chow

University of New South Wales

Peter F. Lovibond

University of New South Wales

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Abstract

In this commentary, we propose that occasion setting in humans may be even more widespread than Leising and colleagues assume. In contrast to animal work, our research using the feature negative procedure (A+ AX−) reveals substantial individual differences in what people learn about the feature (X). We discuss findings showing that the majority of participants in our experiments learn something akin to occasion setting, and we present reasons for why this may be the case. We conclude that occasion setting may be the norm in humans because it allows existing learning to be preserved and allows for the possibility that the effect of a cue is unique to its accompanying target.

Keywords: occasion setting, feature negative, modulation, conditioned inhibition, prevention learning

Author Note: Jessica Lee, School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, 2006, New South Wales, Australia

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jessica Lee at jessica.c.lee@sydney.edu.au.

What an Animal Cognition Researcher Who Did Not Think They Studied Occasion Setting Might Take Home From This Conversation

Marisa Hoeschele

Acoustics Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences

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Abstract

As the editor for the Leising et al. (2025) target article and its affiliated commentaries and someone not normally engaged with occasion setting (OS), I have decided to share my insights on the topic’s broad relevance for the field of comparative cognition. First, OS may be a way to reframe problems that do not have simple associative explanations without leaving the associative learning framework behind. Second, working with multidimensional or nonlinear behavioral data may reflect that one is studying OS. Finally, identifying the strategy for solving an OS-like problem (combinatorial or hierarchical) may help one understand more about the ecological relevance of the particular problem and/or about the cognitive flexibility of the species being studied.

Keywords: occasion setting, comparative cognition, multidimensional behaviours, associative learning

Author Note: Marisa Hoeschele, Acoustics Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Wiesingerstrasse 4, AT-1010 Vienna, Austria

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Marisa Hoeschele at marisa.hoeschele@oeaw.ac.at.

Are You Studying Occasion Setting? A Review for Inquiring Minds

Kenneth J. Leising, Jordan Nerz, John Solorzano-Restrepo, and Sara R. Bond

Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University

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Abstract

Holland (1983) proposed that occasion setting was a type of learning distinct from simple discriminations (X+, Y−), with the defining property as modulation by one stimulus (X) of the associative value of another stimulus (XA+, A−), which is orthogonal to any direct control of behavior or any outcome representation elicited by X. A variety of procedures have been developed to evaluate acquisition of this kind of control, as well as distinguish it from direct control. Application of occasion setting in psychology has remained largely confined to traditional associative learning paradigms. The current review aims to provide researchers with the knowledge and tools necessary to identify whether occasion setting might be occurring in their own research. One test procedure is recommended, though several options are reviewed. We encourage thinking more broadly about the presence of occasion setting by evaluating its potential role in spatial learning, match-to-sample (MTS), and theory of mind (ToM), among others. Furthermore, we briefly review demonstrations of occasion setting in other organisms, including invertebrates. These demonstrations suggest that occasion setting has played an important role in evolutionary fitness.

Keywords: occasion setting, conditional discrimination, biconditional, patterning

Author Note: Kenneth J. Leising, Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, 2800 S. University Drive, Attn: Box 298920, Fort Worth, TX 76129, United States

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kenneth J. Leising at k.j.leising@tcu.edu.